Research Examples

<body topmargin=0 leftmargin=0 marginheight=0 marginwidth=0> <table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0 border=0><tr> <td valign="top" colspan=2 height=85 BGCOLOR="#FFFFFF" TEXT="#080000"> <div> <FONT SIZE="5" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" ><B>Dr. Cheryl Grable</B></FONT><FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" ><B>     </B></FONT><B>|     </B><A HREF="index.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Dr. Cheryl Grable"><U><B>home</B></U></A><B>  /  </B><A HREF="id40_resources_.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Resources"><U><B>Resources</B></U></A></div> <div> <A HREF="id45.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="SCED 7304"><U>SCED 7304</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id58.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Time line"><U>Time line</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id59.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Project Guideline"><U>Project Guideline</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id57.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Topics"><U>Topics</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id47.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Prospectus Examples "><U>Prospectus Examples   </U></A>   |   <B>Research Examples</B></div> <div> </div> </td> </tr><tr> <td valign="top" width=180 BGCOLOR="#990033" TEXT="#080000"> <div> <A HREF="id56_m.htm#the_impact_of_cooperative_learning_vs_" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Research Examples"><U><B>The Impact of Cooperative Learning vs. Traditional Teaching Methods on Achievement in Science</B></U></A></div> <bR> <bR> <div> <A HREF="id56_m.htm#encouraging_african_american_students" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Research Examples"><U><B>Encouraging African American Students in Mathematics and Science</B></U></A></div> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> </td> <td valign="top" height=395 BGCOLOR="#FFFFFF" TEXT="#080000"> <div> <I> <A NAME="research_examples"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></I><I>Research Examples</I></div> <div> These examples are all in <B>draft form</B> and should not be confused as the final paper.  The Bibliographies are not in current APA style and there are mistakes throughout the papers.  They are examples to give you an idea of what a final paper is and what it should contain.  Hopefully, they will also give you ideas for your research topic.  The latest version of the<FONT SIZE="3" COLOR="#990000" FACE="Arial" ><A HREF="http://mentalhelp.net/guide/pro25.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://mentalhelp.net/guide/pro25.htm"><U> APA</U></A></FONT><A HREF="http://mentalhelp.net/guide/pro25.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://mentalhelp.net/guide/pro25.htm"><U> </U></A>guide should be used for the paper.</div> <bR> <bR> <bR> <div> <B> <A NAME="the_impact_of_cooperative_learning_vs_"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B><B>The Impact of Cooperative Learning vs. Traditional Teaching Methods on Achievement in Science</B></div> <bR> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> Action Research Project</div> <div>      Cooperative learning is an old idea.  As early as the first century A.D., philosophers argued that in order to learn one must have a learning partner (Grisham, & Molinelli, 1995).  Cooperative learning can be defined as the instructional use of small groups so that students work together to maximize their own and each other's learning.  (Johnson, Johnson, and Holubec, 1993).  Class members are organized into small groups after receiving instruction from the teacher.  They then work through the assignment until all group members successfully understand and complete it.  Cooperative efforts result in participants striving for mutual benefit so that all group members gain from each other's efforts.</div> <div>      Thinking skills and creativity are promoted when students interact with their peers to brainstorm, explain, question, disagree, persuade, and problem-solve.  Cooperative learning offers many tools for structuring this type of thinking interaction.  The basic elements of cooperative learning are as follows:</div> <div> Students must perceive that they “sink or swim together.”</div> <div> Students are responsible for everyone else in the group, as well as for themselves.</div> <div> Students must see that they all have the same goals.</div> <div> Students must divide up the tasks and share the responsibilities equally among group members.</div> <div> Students will be given one evaluation or reward that will apply to all members of the group.</div> <div> Students share leadership while they acquire skills for collaborating during learning.</div> <div> Students will be held individually accountable for material worked on in the cooperative groups (Lundgren, 1994).</div> <bR> <div> There are three models of cooperative learning:  competitive, individualistic, and cooperative structures.  The competitive structure is the most prevalent.  This structure features team games, competitions and contests among learners that guarantee there will be both winners and losers.  In the individualistic structure students efforts are directed towards improving his own learning or scores without regard for someone else's achievement (Example:  bettering one's score on a timed test of identifying elements by their symbols).  The student does not have to beat another to achieve his/her goal.  In the cooperative structure students must act together to reach a goal of entertaining the audience (Example:  putting on a play).  Everyone must do his/her part to successfully reach the goal of entertaining the audience).</div> <div>      Studies show that cooperative learning techniques tend to promote higher achievement than do competitive or individualistic learning situations (Johnson, Maruyama, Johnson, Nelson, & Skon, 1981).  Increased learning occurs regardless of student age, subject matter, or learning activity.  Complex learning tasks such as problem solving, critical thinking and conceptual learning improve noticeably when cooperative strategies are used (Lundgren, 1994).  Studies also show that in classroom settings, adolescents learn more from each other about subject matter than they do from the teacher.  </div> <div>      There is a long history of research on cooperative, competitive, and individualistic efforts.  Since the first research study in 1898, nearly 600 experimental studies and over 100 correlational studies have been conducted.  The multiple outcomes studied can be classified into three major categories:  achievement/productivity, positive relationships, and psychological health.  The research clearly indicates that cooperation compared with competitive and individualistic efforts, typically results in (a) higher achievement and greater productivity, (b) more caring, supportive, and committed relationships, and (c) greater psychological health, social competence, and self-esteem.  (Johnson & Johnson, 1989).  The positive effects that cooperation has on so many important outcomes make cooperative learning one of the most valuable tools educators have.</div> <div>      I have chosen to research the impact of cooperative learning versus traditional methods of teaching to see if it will increase the academic performance of my students.  My hypothesis is that I do believe there will be a significant difference in the achievement of students who learn by cooperative group efforts as opposed to traditional methods of teaching.</div> <div> <B><U>Sample</U></B></div> <bR> <div>      The subjects in this project consist of a total of 122 students enrolled in 8th grade Science at Dunbar Magnet Middle School.  This sample represents a diverse socioeconomic class of students and ethnic groups.  The group's ethnicity consists of 71% black students, 21% white students and 8% other students.  The control group consisted of 57 students while the experimental group consisted of 65 students.  The classes that were chosen as the experimental group were similar in size and academic aptitude to the classes that were chosen as the control group.</div> <div> <I>Procedure</I></div> <div>      Dunbar is currently utilizing the A, B, C block schedule.  On “A” days (Mondays & Wednesdays class periods 1-4 meet for 1½ hours.  On “B” days (Tuesdays & Thursdays) class periods 5-8 meet for 1½ hours.  On “C” days (Fridays) all classes, periods 1-8 meet for 40 minutes.  On “C” days all <I>classes</I> review information covered on days “A” and “B”, so “C” days will not be mentioned as an instructional day in this project.  </div> <div>      Students in this research project were taught a chapter entitled <I>Discovering Elements.  </I>This chapter is broken up into three sections.  One week was designated for the instruction of each section in the chapter.  The control groups (“A” day - class periods, 1, 2, and 4) received traditional methods of instruction, which includes oral reading of textbook, classroom discussion, overhead notes, chapter outlines and oral reviews.  The experimental groups (“B” day - class periods 5, 6, and 8) were divided into cooperative groups of three or four based on ability levels.  They received instruction based on all three models of cooperative learning.  After the instruction students worked cooperatively to solve the tasks which they were assigned.</div> <div> <B><U>Week 1:</U></B></div> <div> <I><B>The Objective:</B></I></div> <div> Describe the physical properties of a metal.</div> <div> Compare and contrast the terms malleable and ductile.</div> <div> Explain how the properties of metals determine their uses.</div> <div> <B>Control Groups</B></div> <div>      On Monday of week one students in the control group read section one on elements aloud in class.  I stopped periodically to elaborate on important information, and asked questions to clarify any misunderstanding.  I also asked students to make notes of the information I had given them and highlight information in their textbooks.  Toward the end of the period a class discussion and oral review took place.</div> <div>      On Wednesday students in the control group finished reading section one orally and participated individually in an activity that required them to match up elements and symbols.  Students had to recall what they had learned from the previous class learning in order to complete the assignment.  In an additional individual assignment students examined element samples that were provided and were asked to separate the elements into categories according to their properties.  Toward the end of class students took notes from the overhead to reiterate the objectives of the lesson, and define terms.  At the end of class an oral review took place.</div> <div> <B>Experimental Groups</B></div> <div>      On Tuesday of week on the objective was explained to the cooperative groups.  The groups then participated in the “think-write-round robin” learning strategy, which is a form of the cooperative structure model.  The assignment required students to work with one book in their teams and look at a list of elements and symbols and try to match the symbol with the element.  While divided into their cooperative group ach member of the team gave their input, and then rotated to another team member until all elements were matched with their symbols.  In another activity, the cooperative groups worked together using the same materials provided for the control group to separate elements into categories according to their properties.  After working cooperatively the majority of the class period each cooperative group was able to “discover” the physical properties of metals.</div> <div>      On Thursday the groups worked together again using the information they had previously learned to “discover” common uses of metals.  The teams were able to apply the information they had learned and tell me properties of some samples that were provided in class. After brainstorming within their teams students could also tell me common uses of metals.</div> <div> <B><U>Week 2:</U></B></div> <div> <I><B>The Objective:</B></I></div> <div> Describe the physical properties of a nonmetal.</div> <div> Compare and contrast metals and nonmetals.</div> <div> Relate the properties of nonmetals to their uses.</div> <div> <B>Control Groups</B></div> <div>      On Monday of week two students in the control groups were given an assignment that required them to read silently and outline section two of the chapter.  After outlining the section, the students were asked to complete questions on the board and use their outlines to answer the questions.  After all students finished their work, the lesson was reviewed and the answers to the board questions were given.</div> <div>      On Wednesday of week two students in the control group listened to a class lecture and viewed overhead transparencies that reiterated the objectives for section two.  The students took notes, and afterwards there was an oral review.</div> <div> <B>Experimental Groups</B></div> <div>      On Tuesday of week two students were told they would be teaching class.  The entire section two was broken up into parts and each group was responsible for developing an interesting method for teaching their classmates the information they had been assigned to teach.  Using the “jigsaw” method of cooperative learning, a cooperative structure model, each team gave oral presentations which included drawings, charts and other useful information they felt would help their peers remember the lesson they were teaching.  Each group was allotted twenty minutes to develop a lesson and no longer than seven minutes to present their information.</div> <div>      On Thursday of week two students that did not present their information on Tuesday had the opportunity to finish.  After all groups presented their information, team competitions were used as a review.  Incentives were given to the winning team.</div> <div> <B><U>Week 3:</U></B></div> <div> <I><B>The Objective:</B></I></div> <div> Distinguish among metal, nonmetals, and metalloids.</div> <div> Relate the unique properties of metalloids to their uses.</div> <div> <B>Control Groups</B></div> <div>      On Monday of week three students read section three of the chapter orally, then they were given a handout, which included fill in the blank answers that required students to go back through the section and read to find the answers, which reiterated the objectives.</div> <div>      Papers were graded as the section three review.  On Wednesday students reviewed the answers to their worksheet orally and were given an individual class assignment that required them to examine the label on a mineral bottle and name all the elements listed on the label then classify the elements as metal, nonmetal or metalloid.</div> <div> <B>Experimental Groups</B></div> <div>      On Tuesday students worked in their groups competitively against other teams to list properties of metals and nonmetals.  This activity was a timed assignment.  The team who listed the properties correctly with the fastest time received a prize.  After the team competition, students worked in their groups on another assignment to compile a list that described elements that were neither a metal nor nonmetal but has properties of both.  This assignment was based on the cooperative structure model.</div> <div>      On Thursday students worked together in their groups to complete the same activity the control group completed; using labels from mineral bottles, writing the names of the elements and then classifying them as metals, nonmetals or metalloids.  Upon completion of the assignment the groups worked cooperatively to answer the same questions to the section review that the control groups had completed.</div> <div> <I>Analysis of Data</I></div> <div>      After three weeks of classroom instruction both the experimental and control groups took the same written test over the objectives covered.  The test included matching, completion, multiple choice and short answer questions.  The results of individual student's performance were observed, and then each class's overall performance was observed.</div> <div> <TABLE BORDER="2" CELLPADDING="1" CELLSPACING="1" WIDTH="580" BORDERCOLORLIGHT="#C0C0C0" BORDERCOLORDARK="#808080" FRAME="BOX" RULES="ALL" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" > <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 19 WIDTH="186"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="19" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="186" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="186"><div> Control Group</div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP><NOBR><div> Experimental Group</div> </NOBR></tD> </tR> </TABLE></div> <div> <TABLE BORDER="2" CELLPADDING="1" CELLSPACING="1" WIDTH="580" BORDERCOLORLIGHT="#C0C0C0" BORDERCOLORDARK="#808080" FRAME="BOX" RULES="ALL" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" > <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 19 WIDTH="186"><div> Mean</div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="186"><div> 69.603774</div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="188"><div> 70.920635</div> </tD> </tR> </TABLE></div> <div> <TABLE BORDER="2" CELLPADDING="1" CELLSPACING="1" WIDTH="580" BORDERCOLORLIGHT="#C0C0C0" BORDERCOLORDARK="#808080" FRAME="BOX" RULES="ALL" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" > <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 19 ><NOBR><div> Standard Deviation</div> </NOBR></tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="186"><div> 12.821473</div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="188"><div> 16.554014</div> </tD> </tR> </TABLE></div> <bR> <div>      When comparing the control group to the experimental group, the mean score for the control group was 69.603774 and the mean score for the experimental group was 70.920635.  The experimental group outscored the control group by 1.316861% percent.  The standard deviation for the control group was 12.821473 and the standard deviation for the experimental group was 16.554014.  The larger standard deviation score for the experimental group indicates there is a larger gap in the range of high and low test scores.  This suggests is that the internal validity and reliability both are low.</div> <div> <B><U>Conclusion</U></B></div> <div>      In conclusion, my hypothesis was not supported.  When comparing the effects of the cooperative learning method of teaching and traditional methods of teaching, there was a difference in the mean scores of the control and experimental groups.  However, the differences in the means were not large enough to consider them statistically significant.  Even though the experimental group outperformed the control group by a small percentage many outside influences could have contributed to the outcomes of these results.  As a researcher, I could have unknowingly manipulated the outcome due to student/teacher biases, and my personal opinion regarding the cooperative learning method.  Also, the results could have been due to student ability and study habits rather than the cooperative learning teaching method. </div> <div>      I was somewhat disappointed in the test scores of the experimental group.  I thought they would be higher.  I believe that if I had given a different type of test, (one in which students had to interact, use manipulatives or demonstrate specific learned skills) there may have been a significant difference in outcome of my research.</div> <div>      For many students science is a difficult subject because they find it hard to connect to previous learning.  Cooperative learning has proven to be one teaching method that I have used in my class to bridge this gap by allowing students to interact and “experience” science.  This method creates a positive atmosphere for all students.  Also, because there are so many different learning styles in every classroom, cooperative learning caters to the needs of each individual.</div> <div>      When comparing my students and looking at the impact cooperative learning makes on specific groups of students I found that students participation for my low achievers increases when cooperative learning is used.  Another observation I've noticed is that the low achievers disciplinary problems decrease when they are in cooperative learning groups.  Also, they are more confident and more likely to ask questions of their peers within their cooperative groups than in a large teacher centered classroom setting.  For my average learners cooperative learning seems to help them remember the learning better, and it increases their problem solving ability.  My high achievers are very conscientious about their grades, and they continue to excel.  They've show improvement in their ability to reason and synthesize more information than when they worked alone.</div> <div>      Today teachers are in competition with television, video games, etc., which forces us to be innovative and creative while at the same time motivating students to learn.  The cooperative learning teaching method has proven to be a valuable tool that does just that.  Students get excited when they see my enthusiasm about what I teach and cooperative learning is the reason behind my enthusiasm.  I will continue to use this method year after year.</div> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> <B><U>Work Cited</U></B></div> <div>      Aaronson, E., The jigsaw classroom (Beverly Hills, CA:  Sage Publications, 1978.</div> <div>      Grisham, Dana L. & Molinelli, Paul M. (1995).  Professionals guide to cooperative learning.  43-45.</div> <div>      Johnson, D. W. et al, Circles of learning. (Washington, DC. ASCD, 1985).</div> <div>      Johnson, D. W., Johnson R. T., & Holubec, E. J. (1993). <I>Cooperation in the classroom</I> (6th ed.). MN: Interaction Book Company.</div> <div>      Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1989). <I>Cooperation and competition:  Theory and research.</I>  Edina, MN:  Interaction Book Company.</div> <div>      Johnson, D. W., Maruyama, G., Johnson, R., Nelson, D., & Skon, L. (1981).  Effects of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic goal structures on achievement:  A metacognitive analysis.  <I>Psychological Bulletin, </I>89, 47-62.</div> <div>      Kagan, S. New Cooperative learning smartcard, 1988.</div> <div>      Lundgren, Linda (1994). <I>Cooperative learning in the science classroom.</I>  5-11.  Glencoe Division of Macmillian/McGraw-Hill.</div> <div>      Slavin, R. (1986).  Using student team learning.  Baltimore, MD.  John Hopkins University.  Center for research on elementary and middle school.</div> <div>      Slavin, R. E. “Learning together:  Cooperative groups and peer tutoring produce significant academic gains,” <I>American Educator, </I>Summer, 1986, pp. 6-13.</div> <bR> <bR> <bR> <div>  </div> <bR> <div> <B> <A NAME="encouraging_african_american_students"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B><B>Encouraging African American Students in Mathematics and Science</B></div> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> Abstract</div> <div> Studies by the National Science foundation (1982) indicate Black and Hispanic students are less likely than White and Asian students to complete a bachelor's degree.  I have noticed the beginning of this behavior at the high school level also.  Central High School has a high minority population.  There are many African American students in lower level mathematics and science classes while the upper level mathematics and science classes give Central the appearance of being a predominately white school.  The purpose of this research is to explore the under representation of African Americans in upper level mathematics and science courses at the high school level and possible teacher interventions to overcoming the disparity.</div> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> Review of the Literature</div> <div>      The attrition rate of African American and other minorities from Math and Science fields are well documented (NSF, April 1989, Siebert, 1992, Hewitt & Seymour, 1992).  As a matter of fact Black and Hispanics students are less likely than white and Asian students to complete a bachelors degree in any field within five years.  Only 34% of the African Americans who entered a bachelor's degree program in 1989 had earned their degree by spring 1994.  Also, 37% of blacks, compared with 27% of white students, had earned no degree and were no longer enrolled toward a bachelor's degree after five years.  (NSF 1982)</div> <div>      A common assumption is that students who leave the Sciences are less able in the Sciences than those who continue.  However many studies have shown that ability is not always the deciding factor.  A number of factors contribute to the high attrition rate for African American and other minorities in the Sciences.  Attitudes and preconceptions toward careers in the Sciences have proven to be major factors for some.  Many of these attitudes and preconceptions are developed early in life.  This paper examines some of the attitudes and preconceptions of High School African American students who are not enrolled in upper level Math and Science classes.  Upper level Math and Science classes will be defined as those classes designated as Pre-AP and AP courses.</div> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> Methods and Procedures</div> <div>      I conducted a survey on 15 African American 11th grade students.  There were eight males and seven females.  The purpose of the survey was to try to determine what factors contributed to their NOT enrolling in upper level Math and Science courses.  I was also interested in learning what I could do as an educator to encourage more African Americans to take higher-level mathematics and science courses and possibly choose a career in the fields of mathematics and science.  The survey results are displayed in a table in Figure 1 and a chart in Figure 2.</div> <div> Figure 1:  Survey Results</div> <div> <TABLE BORDER="2" CELLPADDING="1" CELLSPACING="1" WIDTH="450" BORDERCOLORLIGHT="#C0C0C0" BORDERCOLORDARK="#808080" FRAME="BOX" RULES="ALL" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" > <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 19 WIDTH="242"><div>      Survey Questions     </div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="92"><div> Yes</div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP COLSPAN=2 WIDTH="94"><div> No</div> </tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 38 WIDTH="242"><div> 1. Have you ever considered a career in Math or Science?</div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="92"><div> 47%</div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP COLSPAN=2 WIDTH="94"><div> 53%</div> </tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 38 WIDTH="242"><div> 2. Do you consider Mathematics to be important?</div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="92"><div> 93%</div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP COLSPAN=2 WIDTH="94"><div> 7%</div> </tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 38 WIDTH="242"><div> 3. Do you consider Science to be important?</div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="92"><div> 87%</div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP COLSPAN=2 WIDTH="94"><div> 13%</div> </tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 57 WIDTH="242"><div> 4. Did you take any Science or Math courses other than those required?</div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="92"><div> 60%</div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP COLSPAN=2 WIDTH="94"><div> 40%</div> </tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 76 WIDTH="242"><div> 5. Did a teacher or guidance counselor ever encourage you toward a career in Math or Science?</div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="92"><div> 33%</div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP COLSPAN=2 WIDTH="94"><div> 67%</div> </tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 57 WIDTH="242"><div> 6. Did a parent or relative ever encourage you toward a career in Science or Math?</div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="92"><div> 60%</div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP COLSPAN=2 WIDTH="94"><div> 40%</div> </tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 76 WIDTH="242"><div> 7. Did anyone ever encourage you to enroll in upper level Math and Science classes?  If yes, who?  (Discussed later)</div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="92"><div> 33%</div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP COLSPAN=2 WIDTH="94"><div> 67%</div> </tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 76 WIDTH="242"><div> 8. Did anyone ever try to encourage you NOT to enroll in upper level Math or Science classes?</div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="92"><div> 20%</div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP COLSPAN=2 WIDTH="94"><div> 80%</div> </tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 38 WIDTH="242"><div> 9. Is there a computer in your home?</div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="92"><div> 87%</div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP COLSPAN=2 WIDTH="94"><div> 13%</div> </tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 57 WIDTH="242"><div> 10. Did you like Math or Science in elementary or junior school?  Why or why not? (Discussed later)</div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="92"><div> 80%</div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP COLSPAN=2 WIDTH="94"><div> 20%</div> </tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 57 WIDTH="242"><div> 11. If no, did this influence you in taking upper level Math and Science courses?</div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="92"><div> 13%</div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="37"><div> 7%</div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="54"><div> 80% no response</div> </tD> </tR> </TABLE></div> <bR> <div> Figure 3</div> <div> <TABLE BORDER="2" CELLPADDING="1" CELLSPACING="1" WIDTH="448" BORDERCOLORLIGHT="#C0C0C0" BORDERCOLORDARK="#808080" FRAME="BOX" RULES="ALL" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" > <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 57 WIDTH="242"><div> 12. Name the highest-level Math course you have taken.</div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="92"><div> Geometry = 27% Required</div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="94"><div> Algebra II = 73% Required</div> </tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 57 WIDTH="242"><div> 13. Name the highest-level Science course you have taken.</div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="92"><div> Chemistry = 67% Required</div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="94"><div> Biology = 20% Required</div> </tD> </tR> </TABLE></div> <bR> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> Discussion</div> <div>      It was an eye-opener to see that very few of the students felt they received encouragement from counselors or teachers to pursue careers in Math or Science.  Equally alarming was the fact that 67% of the students felt they had not received any encouragement to enroll in upper level Math or Science courses.  It was encouraging to see that most of the students had computers in their homes.  Of the 80% who liked Math or Science in elementary or junior high school, some of their reasons were:</div> <div> It was taught thoroughly.</div> <div> It was understandable.</div> <div> I liked my teachers.</div> <div> I had good math teachers.</div> <div> It was fun.</div> <div> I liked the Science Fair.</div> <div> It was easy.</div> <div> It was challenging.</div> <bR> <div> The majority of the students' highest-level Science and Math classes were Chemistry and Algebra II.  Both of these are required subjects for all students.  Since the students that I surveyed were juniors, it is highly probable that many of them will not take a Math or Science class their senior year since they have met the requirement for graduation in Math and Science.</div> <div>      Question number 14:  What can teachers do to encourage students to take more upper level Math and Science courses?  Some of the responses were:</div> <div> Make it more interesting</div> <div> Make studies fun.</div> <div> Talk to them about the different careers available in these courses.</div> <div> Suggest they take more mathematics and science courses and make good grades.</div> <div> Explain it to them to make it easier.</div> <div> Explain the subject in a way that not just one person understands it, but in a way </div> <div> that everyone can relate.</div> <div> Just talk to us and show that you care.</div> <div> Be a good teacher.</div> <div> Teach students the basics so that they will be prepared for upper levels.</div> <div> Be more enthusiastic.</div> <div> More hands on.</div> <div> Show them how it will help them get a job.</div> <bR> <div>      Question number 15:  What can teachers do to encourage students to pursue careers in Math or Science?  Responses were:</div> <div> Give examples of people in Math and Science careers.</div> <div> Just talk to us about careers in Math and Science.     </div> <div> Show students how much money they can make.</div> <div> Discuss how important Math and Science are to students.</div> <div> I have no idea.</div> <div> Make sure that the Math and Science departments are strong from middle school through high school.</div> <div> I really don't believe they can.  People are going to choose a career in whatever they want and not because of what some teacher tell them.</div> <div> Talk to them about some of the fascinating technology they could work with.</div> <div> Start talking to kids at a younger age about careers in Math and Science.</div> <div> Offer Science and Math career awareness courses.</div> <div> I'm not really sure because I hate Science and I am not fond of Math either.</div> <div> Nothing.  These careers seem dull to most students.</div> <bR> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> Remedies</div> <div>      This survey demonstrates that teachers and counselors can do a better job as respects encouraging students, especially African Americans, to take upper level Math and Science classes.  It also showed a need for teachers and counselors to encourage students to pursue careers in Math and Science.  As a high school Math teacher, I see the need to focus more on encouraging my students to enroll in upper level Math and Science classes and not just stop with the required courses.  Also, it is important to make sure that all students have the basic skills to move into upper level courses.  It would also help to provide role models in the form of career persons to come in and discuss how Math and Science are used in their career.</div> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> Classroom Modifications</div> <div>      It is important to recognize that there are different learning styles.  Studies have shown that some students learn better by working in study groups.  “Cooperative small groups work is a more effective strategy both for achievement and motivation.”  (Gardner, Mason & Matyas, 1989)  In fact studies have show that many students who leave the Sciences are discouraged by the competitive atmosphere.  Elaine Seymour found that over a third of the students switching out of Science, Math or Engineering fields indicated that one of their primary reasons for leaving was that their “morale was undermined by the competitive culture.”  (Seymour, 1993) And as was stated earlier, many of these dropping out of the Sciences are African Americans and other minorities.  If the competitive atmosphere in the Sciences is discouraging to college level students, then it most certainly could be a factor in students opting not to enroll in upper level Math and Science classes.  In the past I have occasionally used small groups of students working together to accomplish certain goals.  Now, I see the need to utilize this avenue even more in the classroom.  According to the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM), “small groups provide a forum in which students ask questions, discuss ideas, make mistakes, learn to listen to others ideas, offer constructive criticism, etc. (NCTM, 1989).</div> <div>      We as teachers are in an excellent position to serve as good role models of our profession.  We need to talk to our students formally and informally.  Let them know how we became interested in Math and Science.  Also, we can let them know how we have benefited by having a career in Math or Science.  Most students perceive that teachers are too busy to talk with them and have not time for them other than to teach them their subject.  This has also been a problem in undergraduate Sciences.  (Hewitt & Seymour, 1992).</div> <div>      As the survey showed, some students would like for their teachers to “just talk to them” about the different careers in Math and Science.  They would also like for us to talk to them more about enrolling in upper level Math and Science classes.  The survey also revealed that many of our students need personal encouragement.  We educators must remember that small words of encouragement can have a powerful positive effect on a student that can be remembered for years.  It is very important that we create environments that will encourage and support all students in Math and Science, but especially African Americans.  This is so crucial because African Americans continue to be underrepresented in upper level Math and Science classes in many high schools.</div> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> What Can Be Done?</div> <div> Following are suggestions for teachers of African American students that might provide and avenue of encouragement to take more mathematics and science than those required for graduation.</div> <div> Show confidence in all students.</div> <div> Let all students know that they are capable of mastering Math and Science.</div> <div> Believe in the capacity of all students to succeed.</div> <div> Provide all students with the tools to be successful in upper level Math and Science.</div> <div> Create safe environments that encourage participation and creativity.</div> <div> Utilize various teaching methods.</div> <div> Show connections to the real world.</div> <div> Discuss the value of Math and Science Education and careers in the Sciences.</div> <div> Be a good role model.</div> <bR> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> Conclusion</div> <div>      As we move ahead in this new millennium, we educators in Mathematics and Science must make sure that all of our students have the intellectual, technological and self-confidence to be successful.  This can only be achieved if we present Mathematics and Science in a manner that all students, especially African Americans and other minorities can succeed.</div> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> References</div> <bR> <div>      Gardner, A., Mason, C., Matyas, M. L. (1989).  Equity, excellence & just plain good teaching.  The American Biology Teacher, 51 (2) 71-77.</div> <bR> <div>      Hewitt, N. M. & Seymour, E. (1992).  Factors contributing to high attrition rates among science, mathematics and engineering undergraduate majors.  The Scientist, 6 (6) 35-41.</div> <bR> <div>      National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Commission for School Mathematics. (1989).  Curriculum and evaluation standards for school mathematics.  Reston, VA:  The Council.</div> <bR> <div>      National Science Foundation. (1982).  Women and minorities in science and engineering:  1982.  NSF.  Washington, DC.  83-302.</div> <bR> <div>      National Science Foundation. (1989).  Foreign students account for most growth in graduate science and engineering enrollment.  Science Resources Studies.  Washington, DC:  NSF.</div> <bR> <div>      National Resource Council:  Committee on Women in Science and Engineering. (1991).  Women in science and engineering:  Increasing their numbers in the 1990's.  Washington, DC:  National Academy Press.</div> <bR> <div>      Seibert, E. D. (March/April, 1992).  Women in science?  Journal of College Science Teaching, 21 (1) 269-71.</div> <bR> <div>      Seymour, E. Lecture. (1993).  “Why are women leaving?” NECUSE Conference.  Brown University.</div> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> </td> </tr></table></body>